Occupational Stress among Secondary School Heads : A Gender Based Comparative Study

The purpose of the study was to examine and compare the occupational stress of male and female secondary school heads in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. All the male and female secondary school heads working in pubic secondary schools of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa constituted the population of the study. A total of 402 secondary school heads were selected as sample through multistage sampling technique in which 260 were males and 142 were females. Descriptive and quantitative survey research design was used. To seek the responses from the participants, a standardized tool, Occupational Stress Index (OSI) was used. For statistical analysis, proper descriptive statistics that is mean, standard deviation and inferential statistics (independent samples t-test) were employed through SPSS. The findings revealed that both male and female secondary school heads were found occupationally stressed with respect to work overload, role conflict, strenuous working conditions, unreasonable political pressure, under participation, and unprofitability. Comparatively, there was no significant difference between the overall occupational stress of male and female secondary school heads. Based on findings, it was recommended that elementary and secondary education department should collaborate with policymakers to develop comprehensive strategies for stress reduction for secondary school heads so that they may perform their duties effectively.


Introduction
Effective leadership has long been considered imperative to ensure successful performance of schools by introducing a stimulative environment, providing adequate resources, and creating good relations with peers and students (Kythreotis, Pashiaridis, & Kyriakides, 2010).Social changes have converted the school into a more dynamic and complex institution than what has been experienced so far.A good leader mobilizes resources to achieve the objectives of collective interest and takes decisions to achieve societal goals.Due to the importance of leadership in the community, head teachers may provide effective leadership for the attainment of educational goals.It is imperative to modify and improve the performance of the school's head and to recognize specific leadership behaviors and practices that have positive effects on institutional as well as students' performance (Pashiardis, 2011).Effective leadership is widely accepted as being a fundamental element of an organization and playing a vital role in ensuring individual prosperity and organizational productivity.Without effective leadership, an organization cannot acquire success and leaders are unable to perform their duties effectively until they are satisfied and secured in their workplace.Discontented leaders may negatively affect the overall performance of an organization.Therefore, occupational stress of individuals is the most dominant and leading variable as it is directly responsible for unsatisfactory performance.
The purpose of the study was to examine and compare the occupational stress of male and female secondary school heads in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.The outcomes of the study will enable the secondary school heads to ensure an enriched and vibrant environment for overall school activities as satisfied leaders can bring innovations in organizations.Furthermore, the study outcomes will be advantageous for policymakers, educationists, curriculum developers and administrators for devising measures to ensure a favorable and stress free environment.

Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this research study was to examine and compare the occupational stress faced by male and female secondary school heads in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.
Occupational Stress among Secondary School Heads

Hypotheses
H o 1: There is no significant difference between the occupational stress of male and female secondary-school-heads.H o 2: There is no significant difference between the subscales of occupational stress of male and female secondary school-heads.

Literature Review
A stressful leader fails to ensure productive and gainful outcomes in an organization.The notions that is occupational stress, organisational stress, job stress, and work-related stress are conceptualized interchangeably on the grounds that occupations, jobs, work and organisation are commonly indistinguishable concepts.Occupational stress has been defined consistently in different ways.The US National Institute for Occupational Health and Safety describes occupational stress as a hazardous emotional and physical reactions occurring when the demands and necessities of job are not compatible with the capabilities and resources of the employees (Reddy & Poornima, 2012).Based on this definition, occupational stress is an unending condition brought about by the circumstances in the working environment that adversely influence an individual's employment progress (Yahaya, Yahaya., Arshad, Ismail, & Jaalam, 2009).
Occupational stress alludes to the disagreeable physiological and psychological consequences that rise in individuals because of their powerlessness to cope with the demands being forced on them (Miller, 2005).Research has revealed that turnover rates of the working forces increase when occupational stress increases.Therefore, occupational stress contributes to a number of difficulties and hindrances in organizations in the shape of non-attendance, loss of efficiency and poor health resources.Occupational stress may be caused due to excessive or less work, time pressure, deadlines and physical strain created by the working envirnoment.Negative employment environment causes social and psychological stress (Wadesango, Gudyanga, & Mberewere, 2015).
A number of research studies have investigated various reasons for occupational stress in various organizations such as; work over-burden, clashes amongst colleagues and administration, role ambiguity, troublesome interpersonal relationships, lack of social support, and locus of control were referred to as main reasons of stress.Sutherland and Cooper (2000) gave possible reasons that add to psychosocial and occupational stress which include: family needs, marital issues, and conflict between employment and family necessities.Perceived stressors may include: time pressure and workload, administration styles, organization reformation, and insufficient sources (Winefield et al., 2003).Willis (2005) lists emotional stressors as egotism, hate, anxiety, guilt, jealousy, over sensitivity, distress, anger, terror, disappointment, longing for endorsement, death of a life partner, divorce, personal injury or sickness, marriage, pregnancy, sex challenges, gain of a new family member, budgetary commitments, issue with in-laws, issue with supervisor, change in work conditions, change in school and minor infringement of the law.The distinctive reasons for stress at work consist of mistreatment, harassment, feeling feeble and uninvolved in choosing one's own particular commitments, demands of constant unreasonable performance, ineffective correspondence and conflict resolution, instability of employer, lengthy working hours, spending of much time out of family and home, political issues among employees, a feeling that one's remuneration is incomparable with ones obligations, obligations and pressure aggravating life-adjustment (Chapman, 2007;Csillag, Szentkiralyi, & Szilas, 2008).
Occupational stress has numerous adverse effects on employees' mental, physical and behavioral responses.Occupational stress is a noteworthy issue with organizational management and leadership.Stress contributes to problems like unsatisfactory performance, family issues, poor social relationships, health problems and unproductive organization.The outcomes of stress are different depending upon the circumstances and attributes of the people involved.Stress has unfavorable effects on the prosperity of the employees and depression, anxiety, tension and disappointment are conceivable results.Stress that takes place in the working environment has harmful effects on employees' behavior which ultimately effect personal and organizational productivity negatively (Wadesango, Gudyanga, & Mberewere, 2015).Among numerous occupational negative impacts of stress at work are employment dissatisfaction, poor social relationships, decreased profitability, non-attendance, high staff turnover; nervousness, depression, and burnout (Cooper & Williams, 1996;Gershon, Lin, & Li, 2002).
According to Cooper and Williams (1996), three changes that may reveal that one is experiencing stress are modified appearance which makes the individual Occupational Stress among Secondary School Heads exhausted, anxious and upset.The second change is modified propensities or habits which effects diet, drinking and smoking habits.The third change is modified behavior which makes the individual ill-tempered, aggressive and violent.The employee's reaction to work stress may be physical, mental or both (Santos & Cox, 2000).Physiological reactions to stress are regarded as 'fight or flight' reaction.The fight reaction refers to the body reaction to adjust by responding.Continuous high levels of occupational stress can bring about fatal conditions including hypertension, cancer and mental diseases (Butt, 2009;Palmer, Cooper, & Thomas, 2003).
Extensive research has been carried out to compare the occupational stress of male and female individuals in different scenarios.Researches revealed different outcomes where in some research studies, it was found that gender differences have no effect on occupational stress (Hasan, 2014) while in some researches it was revealed that males were more occupationally stressed as compared to females (Sackey & Sanda, 2011).On the other hand, some research studies exposed that females are more occupationally stressed as compared to male counterpart (Butt, 2009;Suandi, Ismail, & Othman, 2014).Tandon, Mahaur and Gupta (2014) arrived at the conclusion that male teachers experience higher occupational stress than females.Conversely, Fairbrother and Warn (2003) found that female employees were found more occupationally stressed because of various environmental and organizational factors than male employees.Similarly, Rosasa, Blevinsb, Gaoc, Tengb, and White (2011) confirmed that women were facing more stress than men.Moreover, they concluded that depression, irritability and sleeping problems were the main issues caused by stress.Chaturvedi (2011) concluded that women employees were more stressed than male counterparts.Likewise, Kumar, Wani, and Parrey (2013) found that female teachers have higher level of occupational stress than their male counterparts.

Methodology Population
All secondary school heads (principals, headmasters, headmistress and acting heads) working in public secondary schools of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa constituted the population of the study.According to the Annual Statistical Report of Government Schools issued by Education Department Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, there were total 2108 public secondary schools (male n = 1386, female n = 722).
The total number of principals, headmasters, headmistress and in-charge heads working in these schools were 2108 (male n = 1386, female n = 722) (EMIS, 2015).

Sample and Sampling Techniques
In educational research, multi-stage sampling technique is extensively practiced globally as it is more systematic, convenient and trustworthy.Multistage sampling is used when the population is widely scattered and adequate resources are not available.Different sampling techniques may be used for selecting sample at each stage according to the nature of the population that is simple random sampling technique and stratified sampling technique.In the current study, the population was widely scattered; therefore, multistage sampling technique was adopted.In the first stage, 10 (40%) out of 25 districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa -Kohat, Karak, Bannu, Abbottabad, Peshawar, Lakki Marwat, Nowshera, Charssada, Malakand and Hangu were chosen randomly as a primary sampling unit.In the second stage, 60% boys and 60% girls' secondary schools were selected with the help of stratified sampling technique as secondary sampling unit.In the third stage, 75% male and 75% female secondary school heads were selected randomly from the said selected secondary schools as tertiary sampling unit.In this way, the total sample comprised of 402 secondary school heads (Male n=260; Female n=142) selected from 534 government secondary schools located in the sample districts.Table 1 shows the population and sample size of the study.

Instrument
The purpose of the study was to examine and compare the occupational stress of male and female secondary school heads in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.To collect the required information from the participants, a quantitative and descriptive research design was adopted.For this purpose, a standardized tool known as Occupational Stress Index (OSI) was utilized for collecting information from the participants after taking formal consent from its authors.The OSI was at first developed and standardized by Shrivatsava and Singh (1981) and is an extensively acceptable tool for gauging job stress.The scale comprises of twelve subscales (See table 2).The scale is comprised of 46 items and each item is designed on five-point likert scale.Out of these 46 items, 28 were true keyed and 18 were false keyed items.The true keyed items were rated as 5 for strongly agree, 4 for agree, 3 for undecided, 2 for disagree and 1 for strongly disagree while the false keyed items were rated as reversed.The reliability coefficient determined by Split half (odd-even) method and Cronbach's alpha coefficient for the scale as a whole were found to be 0.937 and 0.90 respectively.

Pilot Testing
Occupational Stress Index (OSI) was standardized tool having profound validity and reliability which is generally used by the researchers everywhere throughout the world.But the researchers thought it better to pilot test it in the light of social and cultural context of the population area.For this purpose, pilot study was conducted in 25 government secondary schools which were not included in the sample.The researchers distributed OSI among 25 secondary school heads (male n = 15, female n = 10) and their responses were recorded.After analysis, it was found that OSI was found highly validated in the respective population area.

Validity and Reliability
Apart from pilot testing, validity and reliability was also confirmed although OSI was highly reliable and validated.So, validity of OSI was checked through a panel of six experts having doctorate degrees in the relevant area having extraordinary experience.Furthermore, the reliability of OSI was also confirmed by using Cronbach's Alpha based on the information obtained through pilot testing.The average Reliability Coefficients of OSI was found to be 0.872.Dimensions-wise Average Internal Consistency Reliability (Cronbach's Alpha) of OSI was calculated as under: Table 2 shows the Average Internal Consistency Reliability (Cronbach's Alpha) of the subscales of Occupational Stress Index (OSI) i.e., Role Overload (α = 0.887); Role Ambiguity (α = 0.846); Role Conflict (α = 0.896); Unreasonable Group & Political Pressure (α = 0.788); Responsibility for Persons (α = 0.844); Under Participation (α = 0.869); Powerlessness (α = 0.986); Peer Group Relations (α = 0.854); Intrinsic Improvishment (α = 0.786); Low Status (α = 0.877); Strenuous Working Condition (α = 0.838); and Unprofitability (α = 0.998).The Cronbach's Alpha for each subscale indicates that each subscale has a high reliability coefficient.Additionally, the analysis reveals that the overall Internal Consistency Reliability (Cronbach's Alpha) of OSI is (α = 0.872) which confirms that OSI is exceedingly reliable research instrument for data collection.

Data Collection
Data collection process was started on 15 September 2016 and completed on 15 February 2017.In some districts, data were collected through personal visits because of the accessibility of the researchers to the participants.However, data were also collected through postal services in case of far-flung areas where access of the researchers was not possible.Due to follow-up study and phenomenal endeavors of the researchers to contact the participants again and again, 100% responses were received.

Data Analysis
After collection of data, raw data were organized, classified and tabulated.Descriptive statistics that is mean, standard deviation and inferential statistics such as independent samples t-test were employed for the statistical treatment of the data.In addition, the results were elaborated through graphical presentation for the sake of better understanding of the readers.

Findings
The purpose of the study was to study and compare occupational stress of male and female secondary school heads in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.Descriptive survey research design was used.To seek the responses from the participants, a standardized tool i.e., "Occupational Stress Index (OSI)" was used.Raw data were collected, organized, classified, tabulated, and analyzed.For statistical analysis, proper descriptive statistics i.e., mean, standard deviation and inferential statistics i.e., independent samples t-test were employed through SPSS.The detail is given as under: Table 3 reflects descriptive analysis of the subscales of occupational stress of male and female secondary school heads.In case of male secondary-schoolheads, the overall occupational stress (M=3.03,SD=1.19) indicates that they were facing stressful situation in their workplace.With respect to subscales analysis, the most rated subscale of occupational stress was role overload (M=3.54,SD=1.10)Occupational Stress among Secondary School Heads followed by unreasonable group and political pressure (M=3.53,SD=1.07).The other subscales of occupational stress were rated as, unprofitability (M=3.46,SD=1.14), strenuous working condition (M=3.38,SD=1.13), role conflict (M=3.25,SD=1.24), and under participation (M=3.23,SD=1.23).On the other hand, they were satisfied with role ambiguity, responsibility for persons, powerlessness, peer group relations, intrinsic improvishment, and low status.

Descriptive Analysis
In case of female secondary-school-heads, the overall occupational stress (M=3.19,SD=1.31) depicts that they were suffering from stressful situation.Based on subscales analysis of occupational stress, the most dominant and rated subscale was strenuous working condition (M=3.73,SD=1.24) followed by role overload (M=3.68,SD=1.25) and unprofitability (M=3.68,SD=1.26).The other subscales of occupational stress were rated as role conflict (M=3.60,SD=1.31), under participation (M=3.52,SD=1.27), and unreasonable group and political pressure (M=3.51SD=1.21).Conversely, they were satisfied with role ambiguity, responsibility for persons, powerlessness, peer group relations, intrinsic impoverishment, and low status.The outcomes have been elaborated through the Figure 2.

Inferential Analysis/Hypotheses Testing Hypothesis 1
There is no significant difference between the occupational stress of male and female secondary-school-heads.Non-Significant; df = 400; table t-value at 0.05 = 1.966.
Table 4 illustrates that computed t-value was calculated to be -1.243which is statistically non-significant (p>0.05) because it is smaller than the tabulated t-value at 0.05.So, the null hypothesis was accepted.It clearly reveals that there is no significant difference between the overall occupational stress of male and female secondary-school-heads.Moreover, the mean score values also confirm that both male (M=3.03,SD=1.19) and female (M=3.19,SD=1.31) secondary school heads were equally suffering from occupational stress.The results have been clarified through the following figure 3:

Hypothesis 2
There is no significant difference between the subscales of occupational stress of male and female secondary-school-heads.Based on inferential analysis with respect to subscales of occupational stress, the table 5 clearly indicates that female secondary school heads were more occupationally stressful with respect to four subscales that is role ambiguity (t = 2.823, t = 0.005), role conflict (t = 2.651, p = 0.008), under participation (t = 2.234, p = 0.026) and strenuous working condition (t = 2.867, p = 0.004) than male secondary school heads.In addition to these four subscales, there was no significant difference between the other eight subscales i.e., role overload (t = 1.162, p = 0.246), unreasonable group and political pressure (t = 0.171, p = 0.864), responsibility for persons (t = 0.760, p = 0.447), powerlessness (t = 0.133, p = 0.894), peer group relations (t=0.669,p= 0.504) intrinsic impoverishment (t = 1.212, p = 0.226), low status (t = 1.869, p = 0.062), unprofitability (t = 1.781, p = 0.076) of male and female secondary-school-heads.Therefore, the null hypothesis was partially accepted.

Discussion
The purpose of the study was to examine and compare the occupational stress of male and female secondary school heads in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.Descriptive and quantitative research design was used.A standardized questionnaire was used for gathering information from the respondents and data were collected through personal visits as well as Pakistan Postal Services.Response rate was recorded 100% due to follow up study by the researchers.Research studies reveal that majority of employees experienced high level of occupational stress (Ali, Hassan, Ali, & Bashir, 2013;Kebelo, 2012;El-Shikieri & Musa, 2012;Yunus & Mahajar, 2011).The findings of the current study revealed that both male and female secondary school heads were facing stressful situation in their workplace.They were found occupationally stressful with respect to role overload, role conflict, unreasonable group & political pressure, under participation, strenuous working condition and unprofitability while they were found satisfied with role ambiguity, peer group relations, responsibility for persons, powerlessness, intrinsic impoverishment and low status.The findings are somewhat consistent with Barkhuizen and Rothman (2011) who argue that head teachers experience high level of occupational stress relating to pay, work overload and work life imbalance.
Based on role overload analysis, secondary school heads responded that they were unable to perform their duties effectively due to excessive workload.They were unable to complete their tasks to their satisfaction due to lack of time and work overload.The findings of the study are consistent with a numerous research studies (Jehangir, Kareem, Khan, Jan, & Soherwardi, 2011;Massa, 2013, Ngari et al., 2013;Zarea, 2015;Danjin, Adamu, Ribadu, & Adamu, 2016).On the dimension of role conflict, they responded that their officers frequently communicate to them contradictory information regarding their work.Officials interfere in their jurisdiction and working methods and they are not provided with sufficient facilities.Employees do not give due significance to the official instructions and formal working procedures.It becomes difficult for them to implement the new dealing procedures and policies in place of those already in practice.The findings are consistent with different research findings of other scholars (Chang & Lu, 2007;Juma, Simatwa, & Ayodo, 2016).On the dimension of unreasonable group and political pressure, they responded that sometimes it becomes difficult to follow formal rules due to political interference and group pressure.They were forced to encroach upon the formal and administrative rules and policies.Kalungwa (2014) also validated this fact.
Responses of secondary school heads regarding under participation dimension of occupational stress revealed that most of their suggestions were not heeded and implemented.Their co-operation was not sought for the solution of administrative problems at higher level.Their opinions were not considered in formulating education policies as well as in changing or modifying the working system and conditions (Sharpley, Reynolds, & Acosta, 1997).Responses of the secondary school heads regarding working condition revealed that they perform under tense circumstances.Some of their tasks are quite risky and complicated.Working conditions were unsatisfactory for their welfare and convenience.The findings are consistent with different research findings of other scholars (Juma, Simatwa, & Ayodo, 2016).In case of unprofitability dimension of occupational stress, secondary school heads responded that they were poorly remunerated in comparison to the work assigned to them and were seldom rewarded for their hard labor and efficient performance.
In the comparative perspective, no significant difference was found between the overall occupational stress of male and female secondary school heads.Female secondary school heads were found more occupationally stressful with respect to role conflict, role ambiguity, under participation, and strenuous working condition.The findings of the study are consistent with the findings of Hasan (2014) who found that there was no significant difference between the occupational stress of males and females.On the other hand, the results of study contradict the findings of many research studies in which it was found that females were more occupationally stressful than males (Chaturvedi, 2011;Fairbrother & Warn, 2003;Kumar, Wani, & Parrey, 2013;Rosasa, Blevinsb, Gaoc, Tengb, & White, 2011).

Conclusion and Recommendations
The findings reveal that both male and female secondary school heads were found occupationally stressed with respect to role overload, role conflict, unreasonable group and political pressure, under participation, strenuous working condition, and unprofitability.In the comparative perspective, there was no significant difference between the overall occupational stress of male and female secondary school heads.However, female secondary school heads were found more occupationally stressed with respect to role conflict, role ambiguity, under participation, and strenuous working condition.
Based on findings and conclusions, it is recommended that elementary and secondary education department should collaborate with policy makers to formulate comprehensive strategies for stress reduction management of secondary school heads so that they may perform their duties effectively.Furthermore, trainings, seminars and workshops on stress reduction management should be arranged for secondary-school-heads.Secondary school heads should be taken into confidence while formulating educational policies.They may be provided basic facilities and for this purpose, special budget should be reserved to improve the working conditions.They should be granted handsome compensation and other incentives and political interference in school should be banned.

Figure 2 .
Figure 2. Occupational Stress of Male and Female Secondary-School-Heads

Figure 3 .
Figure 3. Overall Occupational Stress of Male and Female Secondary School Heads

Table 1
Population and Sample Size of the Study

Table 2
Average Internal Consistency Reliability (Cronbach's Alpha) of the sub-scales of Occupational Stress Index (OSI)

Table 3
Descriptive Analysis of Different Subscales of Occupational Stress of Male and Female Secondary-School-Heads

Table 4
Independent Samples t-test Analysis of Occupational Stress between Male and Female Secondary-School-Heads

Table 5
Independent Samples t-test Analysis of the Sub-Scales of Occupational Stress Between Male and Female Secondary-Secondary-School-Heads